poetry and prose, like all other arts, need to use tools to communicate with the audience; irony is one of these tools. Early rhetorical scholars have addressed the significance of irony and its impact on the expression of meaning as well as the indirect transfer of the message. The present study is an attempt to analyze irony and its variants in classical Kurdish poetry in a new way, and to study the reasons behind its emergence in the literary world, while focusing on its aesthetic functions. Irony is a word, phrase, or sentence which is used to express meaning indirectly. The meaning may not be so influential if expressed in an ordinary language. Irony artistically expresses the meaning and is rooted in the science of rhetoric. The results of this study indicate that the origin of irony is the common speaking of people and it is used in specific times and places to convey the message and to inform the addressee with different goals. Irony reflects the intellectual level of society. It has a particular significance for all of the speakers of a mother tongue. It is rooted in society and its survival or decline depends on the decision of the people in a society. Irony has an intrinsic impact on speakers of a language; it is sometimes encouraging and alleviating the personal pains at other times. The main purpose of irony is to magnify the meaning. Adopting a descriptive-analytical method, the present study aims to answer the following questions: What is the main reason behind using irony in literature? Why does the writer or speaker express the meaning indirectly?

Focusing on the translation of classical Arabic poetry into Persian classical poetry, this article examines the interactions that take place between the expressive construction and the rhythmic construction of poetry in this type of translation in order for the translation product to convey both the content of Arabic poetry and simulate its classical poetic form. The questions are as follows: In this type of translation, what are the effects of the interaction between expressive construction and rhythmic construction on the relationship between Persian poetry and Arabic poetry? After studying some examples of translations by analytical-descriptive method, it is concluded that in this type of translation, rhythmic construction occurs in Persian poetry independent of Arabic poetry; due to the observance of rhythmic requirements, the expressive construction of Persian poetry often distances itself from the expressive construction of Arabic poetry. Also, sometimes Persian poetry differs from Arabic poetry in the way of arranging speech in the form of verses; the relationship between Persian poetry and Arabic poetry in terms of expressive construction is realized if the expressive changes in the translation were understandable and in line with the transfer of the themes of Arabic poetry, and rhyming often causes expressive changes in the translated product. Finally, there are three dominant tendencies in this type of translation: formal re-creation, dynamic re-creation, and free re-creation.

The Egyptian Neoclassic poets were the first poets who could save poetry from the calamities befallen them during the age of decadence and put it back on the right course once more. In this article attempt is made to analyze the poetry of three well known Neoclassic poets, namely, Baroudi, Shawqi, and Hafez Ibrahim. Traces of modernism is more evident in their works than their contemporaries. While using the classical Arabic system of meter and rhyme, and also forms, the poets wrote to express new ideas and feelings unknown to the classicists.

After the spread of Islam and its acceptance by different ethnic groups, the Islamic culture became the basis for mutual respect among peoples and nations, and Arabic poetry started promoting brotherhood in faith instead of tribal arrogance. However, when the Islamic society and the Arab world gradually moved away from the Islamic anti-discrimination sources, followed by the reappearance of pre-Islamic tribal prejudices, especially in the Abbasid period, some sects like Shu'ubiyya started defaming the Arabs as a reaction to the injustice of the kings called Caliphs. In the same way, some Arab fanatics started humiliating other Islamic nations such as Iranians and Kurds. Of course, the share of the Kurds was more than double; on the one hand, due to being Iranian, they had to pay for what Iranian Shu'ubiyya did, and on the other hand, because they were believed to be the descendants of the "Medes", they were humiliated by some Persian fanatics. So, “ how Kurds have been portrayed in the classical Arabic poetry? ” is the question which the researcher, using a descriptive-analytical method, tries to answer in the present study. In fact, some various aspects of the images of Kurds in the classical Arabic poetry like how Kurdish figures have been praised or criticized, and their race and lineage have been investigated. The results show that a significant number of such images, under the influence of the conflict between Shu'ubiyya and Arabs, portray negative and superstitious images of Kurds. In some other works, some influential Kurdish figures have been admired and praised but their lineage and race have been changed intentionally. In a few cases, we can find a true image of Kurds. Expansion of mutual communications, general knowledge enhancement, regional disputes, and similar status of Kurds with other nations in the middle east are among the main causes of this positive portrait of Kurds.

Persian poetry has, undoubtedly, a revered and honorable history. Even if Iran’s literature was limited to only poets and orators such as Ferdowsi, Nezami, Khayyam, Rumi, Sadi, and Hafez, it was worth appreciating. We can assert that the masterpieces of Iranian literature honours are not just bounded to these celebrated figures. Nima's loud cry was so effectively heard that its infuence on traditional poetry not only was absolutely apparent, but also broke its firmness to a large extent. Hence, poets such as Parviz Natel Khanlari, Mohammad Hossein Shahriyary, Mehrdad Avesta, Hossein Monzavi and others, each influenced by the contemporary modernists, made some innovations in Persian poetic structurs and added new horizons to the literature. In this regard, this article aims at adapting and examining the post-revolution traditional poetry and the classic ones in terms of their structures.

Most of the previous studies in Iran have examined the deviation in poetry using the model proposed by Leech, so little attention has been paid to discourse deviation; whereas, if linguistics is limited just to the study of phonological, syntactic and semantic aspects of language, its contribution to literary studies will be very restricted. For this reason, using the model proposed by Mick Short upon which discourseal deviation has been firstly applied, it has been tried, in present study, to examine linguistic innovations in poetry. The scope of the study includes the works produced by new generation of modern Iranian classical poets. The study has been conducted to determine what types of discourse deviation prevail in today's classical poetry, and how much is the rhetorical value of each. The results show that eight types of innovation (beginning in the middle, the end of the unfinished, the use of conversation repairing strategy, code-switching, style-switching, expansion of semantic unit of poetry, cataphoric relation and the use of single words instead of making sentence) are prevalent in discursive level in modern classical poetry, some of which are firstly introduced in this study.

According to the theory intertextuality, every literary text, aware or not aware, procreation or readout from his contemporary literary works or before. Nahj-al-balaghe, Since the rise so far, [after the Quran] aways, is considered as one of the key and sources for Arab and Iranian literati. while the classical Iranian poets modling from the valuable words and concepts of Amir of believers is More prominent. so that the kinds intertextuality of Nahj-al-balaghe in many Persian poems, is visible clearly. The aim of this study is to identify, introduce and explain the word intertextuality Imam in the words and concepts of classical Persian poetry. The realization was done by descriptive analytical method, and by induction eloquent the valuable words and concepts of Nahj-al-balaghe in the poetrys of the most prominent Iranian poets. By analysis and study of Process intertextuality in these poetry (the text present) and Nahj-al-balaghe (the text missing) we find that the kinds intertextuality was came In the form Intertextual in words of content and reports, and intertextual relations in In the form partial negation, negation and rejection of parallel or general. It should be noted that the intertextual content, and the negation of the parallel of intertextual relations, in the style of writing poems studied, the other, is more pronounced.

The present essay summarizes the research intending to suggest that prose translation of poetry should be practiced as a last resort. The whole discussion centers on the translatability of classical English poetry to Persian poetry and whether an equivalent poetic form could be used for this purpose. In order to reduce the predicted additions to the original content a strategy is proposed which is rooted in stylistic, scientific, and hermeneutic studies on the original poem. Accordingly, a sample classical English poem by John Milton is translated into Persian both by poets and through the proposed strategy. The poetic translation which has an eye on the characteristic features of the original poem is believed to be the outcome of a close cooperation between the translator and an expert in Persian prosody. The research takes on an eclectic approach in its evaluation of the translations and is for the most part poet-oriented.

Traditionally, Persian poets and writers had to be well-versed in a number of sciences or at least have some information about certain sciences as the nature of their works necessitated. Traditional medicine is among the sciences that enriched Persian literature with its multitude of terms and concepts. Although, basically, the terms appeared in the literature of the fifth and sixth centuries, the writers and poets of subsequent centuries continued to use them. Once understandable to the common reader, the images and concepts taken from traditional medicine have now become obsolete and obscure. This article is an attempt to clarify certain medical terms appearing in some classical Persian poems.

classical Kurdish poetry has such a high level and coherent structure in terms of poetic images, subjects, concepts, words and terms that, one can argue, it would not have been rich without a background. There should have been a familiarity at work with the experiences that have emerged at such a level. From the point of view of intertextual theory, it can be demonstrated that a poetic background has played a role in the creation of visual, semantic, and structural layers of classical Kurdish poetry. Of all the possibilities that researchers may pay attention to, it can be demonstrated on the basis of in-text and out-of-text cues that the poetic background of Kurdish classical poetry goes back to classical Persian poetry. Many poetic motifs and images from the literary traditions of Persian classical poetry have entered Kurdish classical poetry. Although this can be observed in all three branches of classical Kurdish poetry, it is less common in Gorani poetry than in Middle and Northern Kurdish poetry. This study examines how classical Kurdish poets benefit from the literary traditions of Persian poetry to reveal that in what poetic subjects are the literary traditions mostly reflected and to what extent the level of creativity of Kurdish poets has been. The result of the research indicates that the reflection of literary traditions can be seen more in lyrical and mystical poetry, and Kurdish poets have tried to create creativity and innovation within these traditions. New theming and localization of images and poetic themes are the most prominent techniques that Kurdish poets have shown creativity in literary traditions.